Segala puji bagi Allah yang menjadikan kita dikalangan orang-orang yang beriman. Aku bersaksi bahawa tiada Tuhan yang layak disembah melainkan Allah, dan aku bersaksi bahawa Nabi Muhammad saw itu pesuruh Allah. Selawat dan salam ke atas junjungan besar Nabi Muhammad saw, ahli keluarganya dan sahabat-sahabatnya.
Alhamdulillah, bulan Ramadhan kembali menemui kita. Banyak ilmu yang perlu kita ulangkaji berkenaan amalan-amalan di dalam bulan Ramadhan, agar kita dapat memperoleh manfaat dan ganjaran yang sepenuhnya pada bulan yang mulia ini.
Risalah ringkas ini akan membincangkan tentang “Solat Terawih” dan perkara yang berhubung kait dengannya.
Berkenaan keutamaan solat ini, Abu Hurairah r.a. menerangkan bahawa Rasulullah saw menganjurkannya pada malam Ramadhan dengan anjuran yang bukan berupa perintah yang tegas. Baginda bersabda:
((مَنْ قَامَ رَمَضَانَ إِيمَانًا وَاحْتِسَابًا، غُفِرَ لَهُ مَا تَقَدَّمَ مِنْ ذَنْبِهِ)) [متفق عليه]
Maksudnya: “Sesiapa yang berdiri (beribadat) pada malam Ramadhan kerana iman dan mengharapkan ganjaran (daripada Allah), diampunkan dosa-dosanya yang telah lepas.” [Sahih Muslim, no: 759]
Takrif Solat Terawih:
Menurut bahasa (lughah): Terawih bermaksud berehat, bersenang-senang, melapangkan nafas dan seumpamanya.
Menurut istilah: Terawih ialah ibadat solat yang dilakukan pada waktu malam di bulan Ramadhan. Bermula waktunya selepas solat isya’ dan berakhir dengan masuk waktu subuh, tidak termasuk sunat ratibah isya’ dan solat witir.
Dinamakan terawih kerana orang yang melakukannya akan berehat selepas empat rakaat (dua salam).
Solat terawih termasuk solat tahajjud atau solatul-lail dengan membaca al-Fatihah pada setiap rakaat dan membaca ayat-ayat atau surah daripada al-Quran.
Waktu Melakukan Solat Terawih.
Sebagaimana hadis Rasulullah saw di atas: “Sesiapa berdiri (beribadat) pada malam Ramadhan…”. Berdasarkan hadis ini, tempoh menunaikan solat terawih ialah sesudah masuk waktu solat isyak sehingga sebelum masuk waktu solat subuh. Ini bererti sesiapa yang tidak dapat melakukannya pada awal malam boleh melakukannya pada pertengahan atau akhir malam.
Hukum Solat Terawih
Solat terawih hukumnya sunat mu’akad, iaitu amalan sunat yang amat dituntut. Rasulullah saw telah menganjurkannya dengan arahan yang tidak tegas, bererti hukumnya adalah sunat dan tidak wajib.
Sejarah Terawih:
Ummul Mukminin Aishah ra, meriwayatkan bahawa Rasulullah saw melakukan solat terawih di masjid beberapa malam (ada yang mengatakan empat malam) dalam bulan Ramadan bersama-sama para sahabat. [HR Bukhari dan Muslim].
Pada malam kelima dan seterusnya hingga ke akhir bulan Ramadan, Baginda melakukan ibadat ini di rumah. Ini kerana Baginda saw bimbang para sahabat tersalah anggap dan menjadikannya sebagai solat fardu dan sudah tentu sukar bagi mereka untuk melakukannya.
Abi Zar t meriwayatkan Nabi saw bangun bersolat bersama-sama mereka pada malam 23 sehingga satu pertiga malam, dan pada malam ke 25 sehingga separuh malam. Para sahabat berkata kepada Baginda saw: “Kalaulah tuan terus sempurnakan saki baki malam kami dengan solat sunat”. Maka Nabi saw bersabda:
((إِنَّهُ مَنْ قَامَ مَعَ الإِمَامِ حَتَّى يَنْصَرِفَ، كُتِبَ لَهُ قِيَامُ لَيْلَةٍ)) [الترمذي، صحيح]
Maksudnya: “Sesiapa yang berdiri (bersolat terawih) bersama imam sehingga dia (imam) beredar (selesai), dituliskan baginya ganjaran orang yang Qiyam semalaman (seumpama bersolat sepanjang malam).” [HR At-Tirmizi, sahih].
Imam Ahmad mengamalkan hadis ini dan beliau bersolat bersama imam sehingga selesai dan beliau tidak akan beredar sehinggalah imam beredar.
Berkata sebahagian ulama’: “Sesiapa yang bangun solat separuh malam bersama imam seumpama dia telah bangun solat sepenuh malam.”
Menurut hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh Ibnu Khuzaimah dan Ibnu Hibban dari Jabir ra bahawa Nabi Muhammad saw melakukan solat terawih sebanyak lapan rakaat, setelah itu diikuti solat witir.
Khalifah Umar bin Al-Khatab ra ialah orang pertama yang mengerah umat Islam menunaikan solat terawih secara berjamaah di bawah pimpinan Ubai bin Kaab ra.
Solat terawih dilakukan berjemaah pada setiap malam Ramadhan selepas solat isyak sebanyak 20 rakaat dan ditambah dengan tiga rakaat solat witir.
Cara Perlaksanaan Solat Terawih.
Solat Terawih boleh dilaksanakan secara berjamaah atau bersendirian. Berjamaah adalah lebih afdal merujuk kepada anjuran Rasulullah saw seperti hadis di atas.
Namun jika menghadapi kesempitan untuk melaksanakannya secara berjamaah, maka dibolehkan melaksanakannya secara bersendirian. Rasulullah saw sendiri pada zaman baginda adakala melaksanakannya secara berjamaah dan adakala secara bersendirian. Ini bagi memberi kelapangan bagi umat, seandainya mereka menghadapi kesempitan masa atau tenaga.
Menurut imam Al Ghazali rh walaupun solat terawih boleh dilaksanakan secara sendirian tanpa berjemaah, solat terawih yang dilakukan secara berjemaah lebih afdal, sama seperti pendapat Umar r.a. yang mengingatkan bahawa sebahagian solat nawafil telah disyariat dalam solat berjemaah.
Bilangan Rakaat Solat Terawih.
Solat terawih boleh dilaksanakan dalam jumlah lapan atau dua puluh rakaat, diiikuti dengan solat sunat witir. Kadangkala timbul persoalan berkenaan jumlah rakaat solat terawih yang sepatutnya dilaksanakan, lapan atau dua puluh rakaat?
Persoalan jumlah rakaat bagi solat terawih telah menjadi tumpuan para ilmuan Islam sejak dari dulu. Mereka telah mengkaji dalil-dalil yang ada serta membandingkan antara pelbagai pandangan yang wujud. Hasilnya membuahkan tiga pendapat. Pendapat pertama: Jumlah rakaat solat terawih ialah 8 rakaat diikuti dengan 3 rakaat solat witir. Pendapat kedua: Jumlahnya ialah 20 rakaat diikuti dengan 3 rakaat solat witir. Pendapat ketiga: Jumlahnya tidak ditentukan. Seseorang itu bebas melaksanakan solat terawih dengan jumlah rakaat yang dipilihnya, kemudian ditutupi dengan solat witir.
Ketiga-tiga pendapat di atas memiliki dalil dan hujah di sebaliknya dan kita boleh memilih mana-mana pendapat di atas. Yang penting, kita perlu menghormati orang lain seandainya mereka memilih pendapat yang berbeza dengan kita.
Ibnu Umar ra menceritakan: Seorang lelaki datang bertanya Rasulullah saw tentang solat malam. Sabda Nabi saw:
صَلاةُ اللَّيْلِ مَثْنَى مَثْنَى، فَإِذَا خَشِيَ أَحَدُكُمْ الصُّبْحَ صَلَّى رَكْعَةً وَاحِدَةً تُوتِرُ لَهُ مَا قَدْ صَلَّى.
Maksudnya: “Solat malam ialah dua rakaat, dua rakaat. Apabila kamu bimbang masuk waktu subuh maka solatlah satu rakaat, menjadikan bilangan witir (ganjil) bagi rakaat yang telah engkau solat” [HR: Bukhari].
Rasulullah saw tidak menyebut bilangan rakaat solat malam, malam pula panjang masanya, boleh dilakukan banyak solat, ini menunjukkan bahawa bilangan tidak dihadkan sekadar kepada 8 atau 20 rakaat.
Berkata Imam Asy-Syafie: “Aku telah melihat orang ramai mendirikan solat terawih di Madinah 39 rakaat, di Makkah 23 rakaat, ini bukanlah satu perkara yang sempit (terikat dengan bilangan).”
Katanya lagi: “Jika mereka panjangkan qiyam berdiri (dengan bacaan al-Quran), kurangkan rakaat adalah baik. Sekiranya mereka membanyakkan sujud (rakaat) dan meringankan berdiri (ringkaskan bacaan) juga adalah baik. Tetapi yang pertama adalah lebih aku sukai.”
Pada umumnya masyarakat Islam di Malaysia mendirikan solat terawih sebanyak 20 rakaat tetapi ada juga yang hanya menunaikan sekadar lapan rakaat. Terpulang kepada masing-masing untuk menunaikan ibadat ini mengikut kemampuan dan keikhlasan diri sendiri terhadap Penciptanya. Yang pentingnya ialah selesaikan solat bersama imam, tidak hanya setakat separuh jalan.
Antara Kualiti dan Kuantiti.
Persoalan yang lebih penting dalam solat terawih ialah cara melaksanakannya. 8 atau 20 rakaat, yang penting ialah membaca surah al-Fatihah dan bacaan-bacaan solat yang lain dengan sempurna, betul dan khusyuk. Jangan disingkatkan, jangan dibaca senafas dan jangan dibaca dengan tujuan mengejar jumlah rakaat.
Demikian juga dengan toma’ninah dalam solat, jadi yang penting ialah kualiti dan bukan kuantiti. Maka pastikan ia dilaksanakan secara baik (kualiti) dan tidak sekadar mengejar rakaat yang banyak (kuantiti).
Antara aspek kualiti yang sering ditinggalkan ialah:
1. Meninggalkan bacaan al-Qur’an secara tartil, iaitu sebutan kalimah-kalimah al-Qur’an secara jelas berdasarkan disiplin tajwid yang betul. Allah s.w.t. memerintah kita: “Dan bacalah al-Qur’an dengan tartil.” [Surah al-Muzammil:4]
2. Meninggalkan bacaan doa iftitah sebelum al-Fatihah dan bacaan surah-surah selepas al-Fatihah. Ini satu kerugian kerana bacaan-bacaan itu memberi ganjaran pahala yang amat besar.
3. Mengabaikan toma’ninah, iaitu kekal di dalam sesuatu posisi solat seperti rukuk, iktidal, sujud dan duduk di antara dua sujud. Tempoh kekal di dalam sesuatu posisi ialah sehingga bacaan dalam posisi itu dapat dilengkapkan dengan betul dan sempurna jumlahnya.
Pernah seorang lelaki bersolat tanpa toma’ninah pada zaman Rasulullah saw. Melihat cara solat lelaki itu, Rasulullah saw memerintahkan beliau untuk mengulanginya [Sahih al-Bukhari, no: 757]. Tindakan Baginda itu menunjukkan toma’ninah ialah syarat sah solat. Sesiapa yang meninggalkannya bererti solatnya, sama ada solat terawih atau selainnya, adalah tidak sempurna.
4. Tidak mengambil berat tentang melurus dan memenuhkan saf solat. Masing-masing sibuk mengejar rakaat, sedangkan Rasulullah saw telah memberi peringatan agar menjaga saf dengan sempurna dalam sabdanya:
لَتُسَوُّنَّ صُفُوفَكُمْ أَوْ لَيُخَالِفَنَّ اللَّهُ بَيْنَ وُجُوهِكُم .
Maksudnya: “Luruskan saf-saf solat kamu atau Allah akan tukarkan wajah-wajah kamu (hati-hati kamu berpecah dan tidak bersatu).” [HR Bukhari].
Sabda Baginda saw lagi:
سَوُّوا صُفُوفَكُمْ فَإِنَّ تَسْوِيَةَ الصُّفُوفِ مِنْ إِقَامَةِ الصَّلاةِ
Maksudnya: “Luruskan saf-saf solat kamu, kerana saf yang lurus itu di antara tanda kesempurnaan solat.” [HR Bukhari].
Berdasarkan perbincangan di atas, sama-samalah kita jadikan solat terawih pada tahun ini dan tahun-tahun akan datang dilaksanakan berdasarkan kualiti dan bukannya kuantiti.
Semoga semua amalan baik kita diterima oleh Allah swt.
Sekian.
ِِِAkhukum, Abu Anas Madani.
Pondok Sungai Durian, 4 Ramadhan 1430H.
Rujukan:
- التراويح أكثر من ألف عام في مسجد النبي عليه الصلاة والسلام. – الشيخ عطية محمد سالم.
- حكم التراويح والزيادة فيها على إحدى عشرة ركعة. – دكتور عبد الرحيم الهاشم، دار ابن الجوزي، 1426هـ.
- تيسير الفقه في ضوء القرآن والسنة (فقه الصيام) دكتور يوسف القرضاوي.
Terima kasih Abu Anas Madani... http://www.abuanasmadani.com/?p=409
Tuesday, July 26, 2011
Monday, February 7, 2011
PET hate: Checking contaminants in recycled polyethylene terephthalate
Recycled plastics: dirtiness can be an obstacle
Recycle, recycle, recycle. One of the environmental mantras that will help to "save the planet." Or, to put it more accurately, save the human race. The planet has shown over its lifetime that it can recover from disaster quite nicely, but that is another argument.
In the recycling industry, plastic is one of the more attractive options, partly because there is so much of it in circulation. About 4% of the global annual oil production is used as a feedstock for plastics production and an additional 3-4% during manufacture. So, there is a high potential for conserving fossil fuels, which are non-renewable.
A high proportion of plastic waste is used in packaging, such as food trays and bottles. A large number of plastic bottles are currently wasted, rather than recycled, which is disappointing because they are generally produced from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a soughtafter plastic for recycling plants. It has a low content of additives and a low susceptibility for the uptake of contaminants.
Despite these attractive properties, recycled plastics are rarely used in food packaging due to concerns about food safety. Any contaminants present must be at acceptably low levels, whether they originate from the original plastics, the material in contact with the plastic article, or the recycling process itself. Subsequent migration from the recycled packaging into food must be less than 10 µg/kg, according to the European Food Safety Authority.
To this end, the EU introduced a challenge test in 2008 as a requirement for recycled plastics intended to come into contact with food. In this test, a set of contaminants are added to the plastics to see how well they are removed by the cleaning process and success relies on the ability of the screening method to measure the amounts of contaminants remaining in the plastic material.
PET challenge test: two screening methods compared
A team of scientists in Spain has compared two methods that are used to extract and measure the contaminants in recycled PET. Cristina Nerin, Juliana Felix and Pilar Alfaro from the Aragon Institute of Engineering Research at the University of Zaragoza added the surrogate compounds to virgin pellets and also analysed recycled PET flakes donated by an industrial recycling company.
Toluene, chlorobenzene, phenol, limonene and benzophenone were the chosen contaminants. In a preliminary screening procedure by headspace SPME with GC/MS analysis, all five compounds were identified but the peaks for phenol, limonene and benzophenone became saturated, even when the amount of sample was reduced, so this technique could not be used for quantification.
So, the first selected procedure involved total dissolution of PET to accomplish total release of the trapped contaminants. PET is relatively insoluble, but dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) was found to do the trick, as opposed to solvents such as toluene and dichloromethane which only achieved partial dissolution.
The solution was sampled by headspace SPME with a polydimethylsiloxane fibre, followed by GC/MS on a 5% phenyl methylsiloxane column with detection in selected ion monitoring mode.
This method proved unsatisfactory on several counts. In the first instance, limonene was degraded by DCAA into several related terpenoids, so its peak in the chromatogram was much smaller than expected. Secondly, there was no phenol peak due to conversion to a non-volatile oxonio ion by DCAA that remained in solution.
Above all this, the concentrations of the remaining compounds were lower than expected according to information from the suppliers, which was attributed to saturation of the SPME fibre.
The second challenge test procedure examined proved to be more successful. The PET samples were powdered before ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane and GC/MS analysis on a similar column.
In this case, all of the contaminants were detected and their concentrations were all larger than those determined by the first method for contaminated PET flakes. The relative standard deviations of the measurements were low at 0.3-6.6% based on replicate analyses.
The contaminants were not detected in virgin PET flakes, as expected, and their levels in recycled PET were all below the levels of quantification, confirming that the cleaning process during recycling was highly efficient.
This research illustrates the importance of the extraction procedure. Minimising sample handling by total dissolution and SPME did not provide the best approach and would deliver misleading results. Conversely, extraction without dissolution, as in the second method, may not remove all of the contaminants but it was overcome in this work by powdering the sample first.
Adoption of the preferred procedure will provide an accurate test of recycled PET material to ensure that it has been cleaned efficiently and any contaminants have been removed before reprocessing.
Related links
Analytica Chimica Acta 2011, 687, 67-74: "Pros and cons of analytical methods to quantify surrogate contaminants from the challenge test in recycled polyethylene terephthalate"
Recycle, recycle, recycle. One of the environmental mantras that will help to "save the planet." Or, to put it more accurately, save the human race. The planet has shown over its lifetime that it can recover from disaster quite nicely, but that is another argument.
In the recycling industry, plastic is one of the more attractive options, partly because there is so much of it in circulation. About 4% of the global annual oil production is used as a feedstock for plastics production and an additional 3-4% during manufacture. So, there is a high potential for conserving fossil fuels, which are non-renewable.
A high proportion of plastic waste is used in packaging, such as food trays and bottles. A large number of plastic bottles are currently wasted, rather than recycled, which is disappointing because they are generally produced from polyethylene terephthalate (PET), a soughtafter plastic for recycling plants. It has a low content of additives and a low susceptibility for the uptake of contaminants.
Despite these attractive properties, recycled plastics are rarely used in food packaging due to concerns about food safety. Any contaminants present must be at acceptably low levels, whether they originate from the original plastics, the material in contact with the plastic article, or the recycling process itself. Subsequent migration from the recycled packaging into food must be less than 10 µg/kg, according to the European Food Safety Authority.
To this end, the EU introduced a challenge test in 2008 as a requirement for recycled plastics intended to come into contact with food. In this test, a set of contaminants are added to the plastics to see how well they are removed by the cleaning process and success relies on the ability of the screening method to measure the amounts of contaminants remaining in the plastic material.
PET challenge test: two screening methods compared
A team of scientists in Spain has compared two methods that are used to extract and measure the contaminants in recycled PET. Cristina Nerin, Juliana Felix and Pilar Alfaro from the Aragon Institute of Engineering Research at the University of Zaragoza added the surrogate compounds to virgin pellets and also analysed recycled PET flakes donated by an industrial recycling company.
Toluene, chlorobenzene, phenol, limonene and benzophenone were the chosen contaminants. In a preliminary screening procedure by headspace SPME with GC/MS analysis, all five compounds were identified but the peaks for phenol, limonene and benzophenone became saturated, even when the amount of sample was reduced, so this technique could not be used for quantification.
So, the first selected procedure involved total dissolution of PET to accomplish total release of the trapped contaminants. PET is relatively insoluble, but dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) was found to do the trick, as opposed to solvents such as toluene and dichloromethane which only achieved partial dissolution.
The solution was sampled by headspace SPME with a polydimethylsiloxane fibre, followed by GC/MS on a 5% phenyl methylsiloxane column with detection in selected ion monitoring mode.
This method proved unsatisfactory on several counts. In the first instance, limonene was degraded by DCAA into several related terpenoids, so its peak in the chromatogram was much smaller than expected. Secondly, there was no phenol peak due to conversion to a non-volatile oxonio ion by DCAA that remained in solution.
Above all this, the concentrations of the remaining compounds were lower than expected according to information from the suppliers, which was attributed to saturation of the SPME fibre.
The second challenge test procedure examined proved to be more successful. The PET samples were powdered before ultrasonic extraction with dichloromethane and GC/MS analysis on a similar column.
In this case, all of the contaminants were detected and their concentrations were all larger than those determined by the first method for contaminated PET flakes. The relative standard deviations of the measurements were low at 0.3-6.6% based on replicate analyses.
The contaminants were not detected in virgin PET flakes, as expected, and their levels in recycled PET were all below the levels of quantification, confirming that the cleaning process during recycling was highly efficient.
This research illustrates the importance of the extraction procedure. Minimising sample handling by total dissolution and SPME did not provide the best approach and would deliver misleading results. Conversely, extraction without dissolution, as in the second method, may not remove all of the contaminants but it was overcome in this work by powdering the sample first.
Adoption of the preferred procedure will provide an accurate test of recycled PET material to ensure that it has been cleaned efficiently and any contaminants have been removed before reprocessing.
Related links
Analytica Chimica Acta 2011, 687, 67-74: "Pros and cons of analytical methods to quantify surrogate contaminants from the challenge test in recycled polyethylene terephthalate"
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